The Cost of Freshwater in the Arabian Gulf

Have you ever thought, while sipping an icy glass of water and gazing at the Arabian Gulf, about where that water came from and the environmental toll of that small gulp on marine life?

According to a World Bank report published in March 2024, the average daily water consumption per capita in the six Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries has exceeded 500 liters. To grasp the scale of this figure, compare it with Germany, a country with a similar income level, where the per capita daily water usage is around 120 liters.

This high water consumption in the GCC countries can be attributed to several factors, including steady population growth—which increased by over 10% between 2015 and 2022—urban expansion and rising tourism, as highlighted in the latest GCC Water Statistics Report (2022).

The global benchmark for “absolute water scarcity,” as defined by international organizations like the FAO and the World Bank, is 500 cubic meters of renewable freshwater per capita annually. In contrast, according to 2021 statistics, the GCC’s renewable freshwater resources provide only about 207 cubic meters per capita annually (equivalent to roughly 567 liters per day).

So, how do GCC countries address this 60% shortfall below the absolute water scarcity threshold? They have turned to seawater desalination, leveraging their access to open water bodies such as the Arabian Gulf, the Arabian Sea, and the Red Sea.

After decades of reliance on desalination and extensive investments in new plants, GCC countries now pride themselves on achieving water security. The average annual freshwater availability per capita—whether renewable or desalinated—has reached 1,524 liters per day, equivalent to approximately 557 cubic meters annually, exceeding the water scarcity benchmark by more than 10%.

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Despite this achievement, many researchers and environmental experts argue over its environmental impact. They warn that the significant expansion in reliance on desalination plants increases the salinity of the Arabian Gulf. This is due to the discharge of brine—a byproduct of desalination—back into the Gulf’s waters, which affects marine life and the communities that depend on it.

The Middle East and North Africa region produces about 70% of the world’s brine, compared to approximately 4% from North America, 6% from Europe, and 10% from East Asia and the Pacific.

Although the Gulf is a semitropical sea, it experiences extreme environmental conditions. According to a study published in Nature, summer temperatures can reach 36°C (96.8°F), and salinity levels can rise to 42 parts per thousand in its shallow southern waters.

Another study, “The Perils of Building Big: Desalination Sustainability and Brine Regulation in the Arab Gulf Countries,” published in the journal Desalination, highlights that brine discharge at temperatures 30-40°C (86-104°F) higher than the incoming seawater has varying consequences for marine ecosystems.

This four-part investigation, a year in the making, delves into the history of desalination plants in the GCC, examining who benefits and who bears the costs. It explores the environmental impact of these plants on local communities heavily reliant on fishing and seeks potential solutions to this pressing crisis.

PART ONE:
When Did Water Desalination Begin in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries?

The Beginning: 1907, Saudi Arabia

The inhabitants of the vast desert region nestled between a sea and a gulf faced a pressing challenge: an arid climate and scarce water resources. Finding a solution wasn’t a luxury—it was a necessity.

The answer lay in the sea's salty waters, transformed into drinkable water through submerged pipelines connected to desalination units. According to a 2014 report by the General Secretariat of the Gulf Cooperation Council, this transformative technology was first introduced to the region by a Dutch company. In the city of Jeddah, locals called it “Kindasa,” a colloquial twist on the English word “Condenser.”

These submerged pipelines produced approximately 135 cubic meters of desalinated water daily. However, in 1928, the system was replaced by another developed by a Scottish company. Abdulaziz Al Saud, the future founder of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, initiated this change just three years after his conquest of the Hijaz region. These efforts marked the foundational steps in localizing desalination technology across the water-scarce emirates and kingdoms of the Gulf.

Over the course of the 20th century, Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries steadily advanced their reliance on this groundbreaking desalination technology to meet their growing water needs. This effort was driven by the population boom resulting from rising birth rates and the influx of foreign workers drawn to the region by the economic boom following the discovery of oil.

In the 1950s and 1960s, Kuwait took the lead in adapting desalination technology, establishing the first modern plant utilizing Multi-Stage Flash Distillation (MSF). Soon after, other Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries followed suit. Bahrain and Oman launched their first plants in 1975, with the United Arab Emirates joining in 1977.

New desalination technologies have since continued to emerge. As of October 2023, 815 GCC countries desalination plants rely on Arabian Gulf water. According to data we obtained from Global Water Intelligence (a company specialising in providing data related to the global water sector), these facilities comprise 1,668 seawater-fed desalination plants spread across the region.

https://public.flourish.studio/visualisation/21027185/

An Enormous Capacity

Desalination plants in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries have a capacity of 67 million cubic meters per day, representing 45% of the total global capacity of seawater-based desalination plants across 187 countries. Meanwhile, desalination plants in the GCC that rely on water from the Arabian Gulf and the Arabian Sea account for 31% of the world’s desalination capacity.

The Arabian/Persian Gulf, shared by the GCC states and Iraq on one side and Iran on the other, is a semi-enclosed sea connected to the Arabian Sea via the Strait of Hormuz. This narrow and strategic waterway forms the only link between the Gulf and the open waters of the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean. This geographic connection has facilitated the exchange of water, marine life, and other resources between the Gulf and the Arabian Sea.

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Desalination plants, introduced to address water scarcity and human thirst, have had a severe environmental impact on marine life in the Gulf. These plants increase the salinity of their waters by discharging brine—a byproduct of the desalination process—into the Gulf, and they have also contributed to rising water temperatures in the region.

“It is evident to everyone that the Arabian Gulf hosts an enormous amount of desalinated water, which undoubtedly has environmental consequences, both now and in the future,” asserts Dr. Will Le Quesne, Principal Marine Environmental Scientist at the Centre for Environment, Fisheries, and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS)—the UK government’s marine science advisory agency. Dr. Le Quesne, who spent seven years in the Arabian Gulf reviewing the environmental impact of desalination plants on the Arabian Sea, has published several scientific papers and studies on desalinated water, as he explained in his interview with Muwatin.

Dr. Will Le Quesne illustrates the gravity of the issue by comparing the amount of desalinated water produced daily in 2018 to Olympic swimming pools. He explains that the daily volume of desalinated water could fill 8,200 Olympic-sized swimming pools. “If these pools were lined up in a single row, they would form a swimming pool 410 kilometers long—half the distance between Kuwait and Abu Dhabi,” he adds.

Le Quesne then expands on this example, noting, “The volume of water processed by desalination plants is three times the amount extracted as freshwater. These plants withdraw seawater, extract the freshwater, and discharge the brine back into the sea. Therefore, the volume of water processed daily in 2018 would suffice to create a line of swimming pools stretching from Kuwait to Abu Dhabi and halfway back.”

Five years after Le Quesne’s analysis, by October 2023, data from the Global Water Intelligence (GWI) database—which includes operational, decommissioned, and planned plants—reveal that the total desalination capacity in GCC countries drawing water from the Arabian Gulf and the Arabian Sea has nearly doubled. The capacity now stands at approximately 46 million cubic meters per day, equivalent to 14,832 Olympic-sized swimming pools.

Desalination Capacity: 46.35 million cubic meters/day
Swimming Pool Capacity: 3,125 cubic meters
Pools Filled by deslantions water: 14,832
Distance Covered by deslantions water: 741.5 km/day

According to the Global Water Intelligence (GWI) database, half is allocated for drinking purposes. Over a third (37%) is used for industrial purposes, while the remaining portion is distributed between irrigation and tourism.

https://public.flourish.studio/visualisation/21027007/

The Brine Discharge

The operation of desalination plants varies depending on the technology used; some rely on high temperatures, while others utilize membranes. However, desalination plants fundamentally work by removing salt and impurities from seawater to produce freshwater suitable for drinking. The process involves several key stages, including pumping seawater into the plant, filtering it to remove larger particles, and forcing the filtered seawater through semi-permeable membranes under high pressure. These membranes contain tiny pores that allow water molecules to pass through while retaining salt. The treated water is then purified and filtered again to meet drinking water standards. Finally, the remaining saline water, known as brine or saline reject, is discharged back into the sea. This brine discharge is the primary environmental concern associated with desalination plants, leading to increased salinity in the marine environment.

Illustration showing the steps of desalination by Sahar Eissa. Photo link

According to Dr. Mohamed Daoud, a water resources consultant at the Environment Agency in Abu Dhabi, the salinity concentration in brine discharged from desalination plants ranges between 50 and 75 milligrams per liter, and it is much denser than seawater. This causes the brine to settle at the seabed near the discharge outlet, creating a highly saline layer of water. This layer negatively impacts the environment and marine life, particularly in areas with low water circulation, slow currents, or shallow depths.

In his interview with Muwatin, Dr. Daoud also explained that the temperature of the discharged brine is elevated, typically up to five degrees Celsius higher than the surrounding seawater. This increase raises the temperature of the coastal water, reduces oxygen levels, and can lead to the formation of “dead zones”—areas devoid of biological activity. The brine is also more toxic due to the chemicals used in the desalination process.

Detailed data on the volume of brine produced by desalination plants is lacking, and scientific studies vary in their estimates of the volume discharged into the Arabian Gulf. A 2020 paper published in Environmental Research Communications notes that the largest 24 desalination plants in the Arabian Gulf in 2017, producing approximately 11 million cubic meters of freshwater daily, discharged about 275,000 cubic meters of salt into the Gulf daily. Over a five-year period, this could increase the basin-wide salinity by about 0.2 psi. However, another study published in April 2018 estimates that for every cubic meter of freshwater produced in GCC countries, two cubic meters of brine are discharged into the Gulf.

Dr. Daoud highlights that the brine discharge volume also depends on the plant’s production capacity and used technology.

The technologies employed in desalination plants in the Arabian Gulf vary, but the majority—around 60%—use reverse osmosis. This is followed by multi-stage flash distillation plants at 22% and multi-effect distillation plants at 17%, according to the GWI database.

https://public.flourish.studio/visualisation/21027077/

The brine volume also depends on the recovery rate, with higher recovery rates producing less brine. For instance, Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) distillation plants typically have recovery rates ranging from 35% to 45%, while reverse osmosis plants can achieve up to 90% recovery rates.

The recovery rate in desalination plants is a critical performance metric that indicates the efficiency of the water purification process. It is defined as the percentage of the total volume of feedwater introduced into the system converted into usable freshwater

Dr. Daoud emphasizes that brine discharge from thermal desalination methods, including cooling water, amounts to approximately seven cubic meters for every cubic meter of desalinated water produced. In contrast, membrane-based methods significantly reduce this volume to one cubic meter of brine for each cubic meter of desalinated water.

Dr. Daoud states, “The salinity caused by brine is not the only issue.” He considers the larger crisis to be the presence of chemical additives in the discharged water, which harm marine life. These toxic chemicals prevent scaling on boiler walls or manage foam formation when saline water enters the desalination plants.

Anti-scalants increase the solubility of sparingly soluble salts and are more commonly used in reverse osmosis plants to enhance water permeability.

Dr. Le Quesne agrees, stating, “We don’t fully know which chemicals are used in desalination plants. Each plant might use slightly different types.” However, during his research, Le Quesne and his team found reports indicating that anti-scalants are added at concentrations of no more than two milligrams per liter.

Le Quesne adds, “Some studies have shown that anti-scalants can affect coral reefs and may be toxic.” He hypothesizes that if anti-scalants are added at a rate of no more than two milligrams per liter of water processed by desalination plants, and this rate is multiplied by the volume of desalinated water, it can be estimated that around 13 million kilograms of anti-scalants are discharged into the coastal waters of the Gulf annually—equivalent to 500 large trucks worth of anti-scalants dumped into the Gulf’s coastal waters each year.

Muwatin could not identify the specific types of anti-scalants used, but according to the GWI database, three companies supply chemical feed systems to 17 desalination plants in GCC countries. Among them are Statiflo International Ltd, a private limited company based in the United Kingdom, and BASF (Badische Anilin- und Sodafabrik), a European multinational and the world’s largest chemical producer, which supplies chemical feed systems.

The brine discharged from desalination plants also contains heavy metals such as copper, iron, aluminum, and nickel. In a research article published in Springer Nature, the researcher analyzed samples taken 1,500 meters away from the Al-Khobar desalination plant—one of the oldest and largest reverse osmosis desalination facilities in eastern Saudi Arabia. The study found that heavy metal concentrations in the sediments were 10 to 100 times higher than the limits set by the World Health Organization (WHO). The researcher concluded that these elevated levels were linked to the liquid waste discharges from the desalination plant.

Dead Zones

According to Dr. Le Quesne, the interaction of brine with high temperatures and chemicals has a powerful and destructive impact on marine life. It also negatively affects fisheries and biodiversity, with repercussions on tourism by damaging certain coastal habitats, which could accelerate coastal erosion.

Le Quesne further highlights another issue: desalination plants often draw in seawater, which can unintentionally capture marine organisms, such as fish larvae, plankton, and other small marine life forms. This can disrupt the local marine biodiversity.

Meanwhile, Hamed Ibrahim, a researcher in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), who has studied desalination plants in the Arabian Gulf for a decade, confirms to Muwatin that brine discharge leads to the proliferation of harmful algal blooms (HABs). These blooms produce toxins that can harm marine life and humans. He adds, “These algae cause fish deaths, deplete oxygen, and release harmful toxins into the water.”

In his 2020 study published in the Journal of Environmental Engineering, Ibrahim found that the southern Gulf area near the Strait of Hormuz experienced a shift in toxic algal growth between 1980 and 2015. His study links the rapid expansion of desalination in the Gulf since the late 1980s to the observed increase in the growth rate and quantity of toxic algae in the Arabian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman.

Ibrahim also points out the harm these toxic algal blooms cause to desalination plants. They clog filters and damage equipment, increasing the costs of pre-treating seawater and hindering freshwater production. His study further highlights that several desalination plants in the Gulf were shut down due to toxic algal blooms in 2008 and 2009.

Winners and Losers

Most researchers who spoke to Muwatin agree that the environmental crisis caused by desalination plants is not limited to a specific country, but rather a regional issue shared to varying degrees among the six GCC states. Its impact is unevenly distributed across the region, depending on geographical factors.

Professor Anton Purnama from Sultan Qaboos University in Oman explained to Muwatin that the environmental impact depends largely on the depth of the sea and the circulation of water in the Arabian Gulf. He added, “It’s unfair that the biggest polluters—Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates—don’t experience the same environmental consequences as countries like Bahrain, Qatar, and Kuwait, where Gulf waters are shallower.”

According to the GWI database, the United Arab Emirates has the largest desalination capacity in the Arabian Gulf region, accounting for 36% of the total capacity of GCC desalination plants. It is followed by Saudi Arabia at 29%, Kuwait at 13%, Qatar at 10%, Oman at 8%, and Bahrain at 4%.

https://public.flourish.studio/visualisation/21060777/

Ibrahim’s study highlights that the southwestern region of the Arabian Gulf is the most affected by salinity levels caused by brine discharge. To measure these levels, the researchers developed a high-resolution coupled model to simulate the dynamic interaction between brine discharge and its circulation in the Gulf. The model incorporates atmospheric and oceanic components to provide a detailed analysis of the Gulf’s conditions.

The study examined salinity and temperature data from 1981 to 1990, with relatively few desalination plants. Using this data, the model simulated scenarios, including one without brine discharge, one involving discharge from the 24 largest desalination plants in the Gulf, and another where brine discharge was limited to 14 major plants outside the southwestern Gulf.

The model ran for ten years, and the results revealed that brine discharge raises salinity levels by 1.6 grams per kilogram. Salt accumulation is particularly severe in the southwestern region of the Gulf, near the Arabian coastline.

Ibrahim likens the Arabian Gulf to a swimming pool in the middle of an extremely hot desert, where the evaporation rate is exceptionally high. The average annual evaporation rate is approximately 1.8 cubic meters per year, contributing to the increased salinity caused by excessive evaporation of the freshwater entering the Gulf via the Shatt al-Arab from Iraq, leaving behind salts and minerals.

The Big Players

Desalination plants in the Arabian Gulf are owned and operated by various entities, including government agencies, private companies, and public-private partnerships.

According to the GWI database, around 81% of desalination plants in the Gulf operate under the EPC (Engineering, Procurement, and Construction) model. In this system, a single contractor is responsible for all engineering, procurement, and construction activities, while the public sector retains ownership and operation of the facility. Approximately 4% of plants operate under the BOO (Build-Own-Operate) model, where private entities finance, construct, own, and operate the facility for a specified period, with no public sector ownership. Another 4% operate under the IWP (Independent Water Producer) model, where private entities build and operate water treatment or desalination facilities and sell the water to public utilities under long-term purchase agreements.

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According to the GWI database, there are 518 owners of desalination plants in the Arabian Gulf, out of a total of 815 plants. Among them, the Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (now the Department of Energy) owns approximately 38 plants, Kuwait’s Ministry of Electricity and Water owns 29 plants, Saudi Arabia’s Saline Water Conversion Corporation (SWCC) owns 28 plants, Oman’s Ministry of Energy and Water owns 24 plants, the Sharjah Electricity and Water Authority (SEWA) owns 22 plants, Saudi Aramco owns 21 plants, the Federal Electricity and Water Authority (FEWA) owns around 20 plants, and the Dubai Electricity and Water Authority (DEWA) owns 19 plants. Ownership details for nearly 300 plants are not documented in the database.

The GWI database also indicates that 36 desalination plants out of 815 are currently under construction. Additionally, 29 plants are listed as decommissioned, 26 are permanently closed, and 144 are assumed to have ceased operations.

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National or private oil companies also own 64 desalination plants. Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) owns seven plants, the Arabian Oil Company owns six desalination plants in the Arabian Gulf, and the Kuwait Oil Company owns five.

Oil powers the majority of desalination plants in GCC countries. According to earlier reports, Saudi Arabia uses approximately 300,000 barrels of oil daily for desalination.

On the possibility of using renewable energy for desalination, Dr. Jawad Al-Kharraz, Executive Director of the Regional Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (RCREEE) and former Research Director at the Middle East Desalination Research Center in Oman, tells Muwatin: “There is a push to transition to solar energy for water desalination. However, the challenge lies in the massive size of some plants, which require vast areas to generate the solar power needed for their operation.”

Will it stop?

According to our experts, GCC governments don’t intend to halt the construction of new desalination plants. On the contrary, the region aims to reach a total desalination capacity of 80 million cubic meters per day by 2050.

Le Quesne comments, “As new plants are built, contributing to environmental pollution, there is also ongoing and intensifying climate change, with temperatures rising dramatically. We can expect compounded impacts on coral reefs, fish populations, and marine life in general.”

A study published in the journal Marine Pollution Bulletin predicts that salinity and temperature levels in the Arabian Gulf will rise significantly by 2050. It forecasts that temperatures in three-quarters of Gulf habitats with depths of less than 20 meters will increase by more than 2°C (3.6°F).

“The impact of desalination plants is silent, but if given another decade, it will explode,” warns Lionel Rabin, founder and CEO of HALTIQA, a company dedicated to sustainable desalinated water solutions. From a coastal village in France, Rabin tells Muwatin: “Fish will disappear from smaller areas because high salinity levels will push some species to migrate. Along with them, fishermen will leave their traditional livelihoods, forcing them to reinvent themselves in other jobs to support their families.”

To the second part:

The Hidden Cost: How Desalination Expansion Is Depleting Bahrain’s Fisheries

For 64 of his nearly 80 years, Bahraini fisherman Sayed Jaafar Al-Bladi worked the waters of the Arabian Gulf. This work was a lifeline for him, his children, and his grandchildren. However, changes in these waters have forced him to abandon the only livelihood he has ever known.

Al-Bladi, like more than half of Bahrain’s population, lives on the shores of the Arabian Gulf. He knows its waters as intimately as he knows himself. “In the late 1980s, the sea began to change because of the construction of desalination plants,” he says.

He describes the transformation to Muwatin: “At first, we saw pipes pumping water into the sea. They told us it was for desalinating Gulf water to make it suitable for drinking, farming, and other uses. But things escalated. The Gulf’s waters changed color, and its smell became unbearable. It turned yellow. The fish we relied on for our livelihood fled these waters.”

He adds, “When we noticed the changes in the water, we raised the issue with officials, who assured us it was a temporary problem that would be resolved quickly. But today, the damage has reached every Bahraini coastline. Fish, which are both a key source of food security for Bahrain’s population and a vital part of our local culture, are now almost nonexistent. Our fisheries cannot compare to those of other Gulf or Arab countries anymore.”

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X_dANUBICC0

Al-Bladi noticed an increase in the salinity of the Arabian Gulf, pointing to visible salt deposits along the shore of Sitra, a region located 10 kilometers (approximately 6 miles) east of Bahrain’s capital, Manama. Sitra is home to the oldest desalination plant in Bahrain, established in 1975 and bearing the same name.

Al-Bladi’s experience mirrors that of 4,500 fishermen across Bahrain’s coastline. These fishermen struggle with dwindling fish stocks and deteriorating water quality caused by the proliferation of desalination plants along the Gulf’s shores. Some have abandoned fishing altogether due to the declining returns on their labor.

Data from Bahrain’s Open Data Portal confirms a 25% drop in the number of fishermen between 2018 and 2022. During the same period, the number of fishing boats decreased by 12%, while the volume of fish caught fell by 5%.

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According to the GWI database, Bahrain hosts 58 desalination plants, 31 of which are already operational, while another 11 are assumed to be, as per the database description. Together, they have a total capacity of 308.3 million gallons per day. The largest plant, “Hidd 3,” produces 72 million gallons per day, followed by “Al Dur 2” at 60 million gallons per day and “Al Dur 1” at approximately 58 million gallons per day—the latter two being the focus of this investigation.

Experts and researchers interviewed by Muwatin and published scientific studies point to the “Al Dur 1” and “Al Dur 2” plants as contributors to increased salinity in Bahrain’s waters in the Arabian Gulf. The discharge of brine into shallow depths has negatively impacted benthic (seafloor) animals, seagrass beds, and, consequently, the livelihoods of local fishermen in the area.

https://www.datawrapper.de/_/bkOtu/

The “Al Dur 1” desalination plant is located on Bahrain’s southeastern coast and officially entered full operation in February 2012 to meet the growing demand for drinking water and electricity. It has a daily capacity of 218,000 cubic meters (58 million gallons) were developed as a Build-Own-Operate (BOO) project with private sector participation.

In March 2019, seven years after “Al Dur 1” began operations, an agreement was signed to launch a new plant, “Al Dur 2.” Spanning over 192,000 square meters, the new facility was designed to generate 1,500 megawatts of power using combined-cycle gas turbine (CCGT) technology and to desalinate 58 million gallons of seawater daily through reverse osmosis—a technology also employed by “Al Dur 1.” The plant entered full operation in the second quarter of 2022.

Empty Nets

A 2019 study titled “Effect of brine discharge from Al-Dur RO [Reverse Osmosis] desalination plant on the infauna species composition in the East Coast of Bahrain” revealed that brine discharge from the “Al Dur” desalination plant has created harsh environmental conditions.

The researchers collected water samples from ten locations, varying in distance from the plant’s discharge outlet and at depths ranging from less than one meter to seven meters. They measured salinity and tidal movements, finding that water salinity exceeded 55% near the plant’s discharge point. This is significantly higher than the natural seawater salinity of about 35%, posing a severe threat to local Fmarine ecosystems. Additionally, water temperatures near the discharge site exceeded 38°C (100.4°F), particularly during summer, indicating a notable thermal impact.

The study also documented a decline in biodiversity and the abundance of benthic (seafloor) microfaunal communities in areas adjacent to the desalination plant’s discharge point. Fish mortality and the disappearance of benthic marine species, such as echinoderms, were observed around the plant. These effects were attributed to slow growth rates, failures in osmoregulatory mechanisms, cell shrinkage, and endocrine dysfunction.

In Bahrain, where salinity gradient standards are absent, the study compared its findings with the quality standards set by Kuwait’s Environmental Public Authority for cooling water discharge into marine areas. The comparison showed that salinity levels at most sampling sites exceeded the permissible wastewater discharge standards by an average of 2.5%- 9.0%.

The high salinity concentration affected the composition of benthic species, with salinity playing a critical role in the growth and size of aquatic life. It disrupted marine species, particularly migratory ones, such as commercially significant fish like silver pomfret and shad, which rely on this region as part of their migratory cycle.

https://public.flourish.studio/visualisation/21031290/

Al-Bladi corroborates this: “Many fish that were once abundant and even exported from Bahrain have disappeared. One example is the ‘mied’ fish, plentiful until 2002. It was so abundant that children could catch it along the shores. Back then, its price didn’t exceed half a dinar per kilogram because it was easy to catch, as it swam near the surface, unlike other species that required diving. Now, it’s gone. Another species, ‘Safi,’ susceptible to salinity, has also vanished. The salts' influx killed it or forced it to migrate.”
In the past, Al-Bladi used to catch around 40 kilograms of fish daily. Now, his nets rarely yield more than three kilograms—insufficient to support a family. This decline is due to the disappearance of many fish species, such as ‘Bass,’ ‘Zmaroor,’ ‘Hamour,’ and ‘Baddah.’

“It’s not just the fish that have disappeared; shrimp have vanished too,” Al-Bladi adds. “In the past, shrimp were so abundant that they were exported in large quantities. Shrimp traders who specialized in drying them sometimes refused to buy from us because they didn’t have enough space to dry the catch. One trader once told me, ‘If we accept more, the town will reek of fish odors.’”

Dr. Thamer Al-Daoud, a professor of marine biology in the Department of Natural Resources and Environment at the Arabian Gulf University, explains the impact of salinity in his interview with Muwatin. He says, “The effects of excessive salinity on marine organisms are often physiological. Coastal species are adapted to a process known as ‘osmoregulation,’ where marine organisms match the salt concentration inside their bodies to the salt concentration outside. Under normal conditions, marine creatures can regulate osmosis. However, in cases of extreme salinity, these organisms either migrate to distant areas or die because they cannot withstand the stress.”

Osmoregulation is the active process by which living organisms maintain the balance of water and dissolved substances within their body fluids to achieve internal equilibrium. This involves regulating osmotic pressure, which refers to the tendency of water to move across a semi-permeable membrane due to differences in solute concentrations. The primary goal of osmoregulation is to ensure that the internal environment remains stable despite changes in external conditions.

Dr. Al-Daoud adds, “The same applies to extreme temperatures. Marine organisms cannot regulate their body temperatures, leading to their death. While some species with wider tolerance ranges can endure elevated temperatures and salinity to some extent, they are still affected. Their growth and reproduction rates are no longer normal.”

Jawad Al-Qallaf, a Bahraini fisherman in his 50s, has noticed a decline in fish growth rates. He says, “The ‘Sobaiti’ fish is now small in size and almost extinct; we can no longer catch it easily. Similarly, the ‘Shaari’ fish has shrunk and become harder to catch because it has moved to deeper waters.”

Speaking to Muwatin, Al-Qallaf continues, “The Hamour fish has also changed; it’s smaller than what we used to catch in the past, even though it’s still abundant. I’ve also noticed a scarcity of other species, like the ‘Qarqofan’ and ‘Baddah’ fish. As for the ‘Safat’ fish, it has become rare and is often scrawny. Sometimes, I throw it back into the water. The ‘Faskar’ fish has completely disappeared from our waters.”

Dr. Al-Daoud describes the actions of the Al Dur plant as selfish: “The plant draws water from a distance of 1.5 kilometers (about one mile) to maintain its efficiency, but it discharges the brine directly onto the coast, without concern for marine life, its death, or the alteration of the water’s hydraulic properties.”

Dr. Waleed Zubari, a professor of water resource management at the Arabian Gulf University, chair of the Scientific Committee of the Water Science and Technology Association, and supervisor of the study above, tells Muwatin: “The Arabian Gulf is shallow, with a depth of no more than 10 meters, and it is a closed, not open, water body. This makes it highly susceptible to salinity caused by desalination plants.” Zubari confirms that they identified hot spots heavily affected by salinity within a 200-300-meter radius around the plant.

He adds, “There is a delicate food chain. We studied the micro-benthic communities and found them missing in areas where brine is discharged. These micro-communities are essential because larger fish feed on them. Without them, the larger fish will also disappear. This was confirmed when we spoke to fishermen working in the area.”

Al-Daoud and Zubari agree that the decline in fish stocks cannot be attributed solely to the salinity and heat caused by desalination plants. They emphasize that the causes are interconnected and complex, stemming from various pollution sources in the Arabian Gulf, such as oil spills, chemical factory emissions, overfishing, and other factors.

Seagrass Disappearing

Bahrain’s territorial waters are home to diverse sensitive marine habitats, including seagrass beds, coral reefs, mangroves, and intertidal mudflats. These ecosystems play a crucial role in supporting marine biodiversity. They serve as nurseries, breeding grounds, and feeding areas for numerous fish species and large endangered animals, such as dugongs, dolphins, and green turtles.

Seagrass beds are located near the coast of Al Dur, close to the desalination plant, and extend to the Hawar Islands. These habitats are vital for various marine species, providing food and shelter for fish, mollusks, and endangered species such as dugongs and green turtles.
Seagrass systems are highly productive and contribute significantly to the marine food web by supporting many economically important organisms.

Coral Reefs
Coral habitats are primarily found in Bahrain’s northern and eastern regions. They are essential for preserving biodiversity and offer critical environmental services, including seafood resources and recreational opportunities.

Mangroves and Mudflats
Mangroves act as crucial coastal barriers, protecting shorelines from erosion, while intertidal mudflats are productive habitats that support migratory shorebirds and various other wildlife species.

Abdulhussein Hassan, a diver in his 50s, has witnessed the changes happening on the seabed for decades. He began his career in the early 1980s when he was just 12 years old. Over the past four decades, Hassan has observed how the waters of the Arabian Gulf—where he has dived extensively—have deteriorated due to desalination plants.

“Desalination plants have significantly increased the salinity of the sea, not just in Bahrain but across the Gulf,” says Hassan. “Bahrain might be less affected compared to Kuwait, where I worked for many years, but the salinity keeps rising day by day. In the past, our ancestors could swim without any harm to their bodies. Today, simply entering the water without specialized swimming or diving goggles irritates the eyes and damages the skin.”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7JMBwVDTGb4&t=4s

Hassan recalls seeing hundreds of coral reefs stretching as far as the eye could see, with various colors and shapes. Today, however, none remain. “One of the most affected coral species in Bahrain is ‘Arshan,’ which grows like a tree and is known for its slow growth,” Hassan tells Muwatin. “There are also stony corals that resemble the shape of a human brain, which have been heavily damaged.”

Hassan’s observation about the coral reefs is supported by a 2022 study titled “Characterization of the water mass dynamic changes surrounding a seawater reverse osmosis desalination plant on the east coast of the Kingdom of Bahrain.” The study highlights that the Al Dur desalination plant, with its highly saline brine discharge, is situated next to a seagrass habitat stretching from eastern Bahrain through Fasht Al Adm to the Hawar Islands. It notes that seagrass growth decreases at temperatures above 37°C (98.6°F), with prolonged exposure to temperatures exceeding 40°C (104°F) being lethal. This suggests that brine discharge zones are likely inhospitable environments for seagrass during the summer months.

Environmental impact assessments further indicate that salinity levels above 58% hinder seagrass growth in the Arabian Gulf, while levels exceeding 67% render the area unsuitable for any seagrass species. The study also reported extreme salinity levels near the discharge points, with a tendency for high concentrations at the seabed, potentially stunting the growth of associated seagrass.

Dr. Samer Al-Daoud explains the interconnected relationship between seagrass, coral reefs, and mangroves: “If the balance of one is disturbed, it affects the others. Mangroves act as a barrier against storms from the land, protecting the coastal environment. Seagrass stabilizes the seabed, and if that balance shifts, sediment will settle, impacting coral reefs.” He adds, “Seagrass is the most sensitive to salinity and temperature, making it the most affected by desalination plants.”

According to a 2022 study, Bahrain lost over 95% of its natural mangrove cover between 1967 and 2020, shrinking from 328 hectares to just 48 hectares due to urban development and rising sea temperatures.

Defending desalination technology, Dr. Waleed Zubari states, “It is essential because Gulf countries are located in an arid region, and with growing populations, water must be provided. Access to water is a human right. Environmental impacts are often very localized, and new plants are designed to discharge brine at greater depths to mitigate their ecological effects.”

As the scientific debate over desalination’s impact continues, fishermen like Al-Bladi and Al-Qallaf face empty nets. The Gulf, which once provided them with abundance, is no longer the same. Its waters, struggling against salinity and rising temperatures, are driving fish to migrate in search of safer havens, away from certain death.

To the third part:
Between Rising Salinity and Carbon Emissions: Who Bears the Cost of Water Security in Qatar?

“My bond with the sea is the only thing keeping me in this profession,” says Faisal Mubarak, a Qatari fisherman in his forties. For 17 years, the sea has been his livelihood, his sanctuary—but it no longer provides him with enough to live on.

Mubarak recalls better days, when he fished in the southern region of Al Wakrah, just 20 kilometers from Doha. Back then, the waters teemed with life. Fish like Shaari, once so abundant that he could catch them as a child from any Qatari shore, have now all but vanished.

Now, Mubarak loses more than he gains from the profession he loves. With visible frustration, he tells Muwatin: “Sometimes a single fishing trip costs me 1,000 riyals (275 USD)—spent on fuel for the boat, wages for the crew, and other expenses. But the fish I manage to catch sells for just 800 riyals (220 USD). The profits are so slim that on some days, I walk away with nothing at all.”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zyo51PEue88

The 40-something fisherman attributes the decline in Qatar’s fish stocks, particularly in Al Wakrah, to multiple factors: the extreme rise in water temperatures during summer, strong water currents, and the desalination plants in the area. Speaking to Muwatin, he says, “The drilling near these plants has disrupted fish grazing areas. It’s also possible that brine discharge has altered salinity levels, affecting marine life.”

Mubarak’s concerns about high salinity are echoed by a professional diver who often explores various parts of the Arabian Gulf. Speaking to Muwatin, he describes Al Wakrah as “the saltiest area in Qatar,” noting that even his body struggles to endure the salinity levels in its waters.

Qatar, a small peninsula on the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, is bordered to the south by Saudi Arabia. Its geography leaves it particularly vulnerable to environmental changes, especially in its coastal and marine ecosystems.

According to the GWI database, Qatar has 109 desalination plants with a total capacity of 1,282 million gallons per day. Of these, 69 are operational, 13 are presumed to be active, and the rest are a mix of planned, decommissioned, or canceled plants.

https://public.flourish.studio/visualisation/21031448/

Most of Qatar’s operational desalination plants utilize reverse osmosis (RO) technology, with a total capacity of 575 million gallons per day. This is followed by multi-stage flash distillation (MSF), which has a total capacity of 504 million gallons per day, and multi-effect distillation (MED), with a total capacity of 201 million gallons per day.

https://public.flourish.studio/visualisation/21031469/
In Qatar, as in other Gulf countries, most desalination plants focus on providing drinking water, with a total capacity of 948 million gallons per day, while 71 million gallons per day are allocated for industrial use. However, when considering the number of desalination plants, the largest share serves industrial purposes, with 50 plants dedicated to industry. This is followed by 45 plants designated for drinking water. Additionally, there are 4 plants each dedicated to irrigation and tourism purposes.

https://public.flourish.studio/visualisation/21031496/

Al Wakrah, where Mubarak fishes, is home to two major desalination plants: “Umm Al Houl” and “Ras Abu Fontas,” located approximately 19 kilometers apart.

Map showing the distance between Umm Al Houl and Ras Abu Fatnas stations.

According to the GWI database, two plants are named “Umm Al Houl.” The first, using multi-stage flash distillation (MSF) technology, has a capacity of 91 million gallons per day and began operations in 2018. The second, utilizing reverse osmosis (RO) technology has a capacity of 72 million gallons per day and was also launched in 2018. The latter was later expanded in 2021 with another RO plant, which alone produces approximately 74 million gallons per day.

As for “Ras Abu Fontas,” the database lists nine desalination plants under this name. Most of these plants use MSF technology, except for one that operates on reverse osmosis. The largest of these plants, operational since 2009, produces about 43 million gallons per day, while the smallest, launched in 1977, has a capacity of 12 million gallons per day.

“Umm Al Houl” Power Plant is a joint venture, with 60% owned by Qatar Electricity and Water Company (QEWC), 30% by the foreign company K1, and the remaining 10% shared among a consortium of Japanese investors: Mitsubishi (20%), JERA (10%), Qatar Foundation (5%), and QatarEnergy (formerly Qatar Petroleum, 5%). In contrast, “Ras Abu Fontas” plant is wholly owned by QEWC.

Although the “Ras Abu Fontas” and “Umm Al Houl” desalination plants are close to each other and discharge their brine into the same area, their environmental impacts differ significantly. Dr. Radwan Ben Hamadou, a professor of marine ecology at Qatar University, explains in an interview with Muwatin that this difference is primarily due to the methods of brine discharge employed by each plant.

Discharge Points

According to Dr. Radwan, Qatar’s oldest desalination plant, “Ras Abu Fontas,” discharges brine directly onto the shore through a single outlet, amplifying its impact on marine life. In contrast, the “Umm Al Houl” plant discharges brine 2.6 kilometers offshore through multiple outlets. This approach significantly mitigates the impact of brine due to higher dilution rates and the large volume of water into which the brine is released.

Dr. Radwan elaborates: “What we cannot change is the amount of salt added to the Gulf every year. The quantity remains the same, whether or not dilution is aided by diffusers.”

A 2022 thesis by researcher Huda Al-Husseini, titled “Assessing the Impact of Brine Discharge from Desalination Plants on Marine Microbial Biodiversity in Qatar,” remains the only scientific study to date focused on a Qatari desalination plant as a case study. The research examined the physical and chemical properties of seawater receiving brine discharge from the Umm Al Houl plant and found no significant changes. Parameters like temperature, salinity, pH, and dissolved oxygen stayed within acceptable ranges for marine environments.

The researcher attributed this to the plant’s offshore discharge point, where brine is rapidly diluted by surrounding seawater. The further the brine travels from the discharge point, the more diluted it becomes. This dilution lowers the concentration of potentially harmful substances in the brine, reducing its impact on marine life. The study found no clear correlation between microbial diversity and proximity to the discharge outlet, indicating effective dilution.

Dr. Radwan, one of the study’s supervisors, notes: “The comparison between Ras Abu Fontas and Umm Al Houl is crucial because both plants affect the same seagrass, shellfish, coral reefs, and mangroves. However, the impact is vastly different. At Ras Abu Fontas, brine is discharged without diffusers or tidal synchronization, making the damage to marine life evident to everyone.”

Dr. Jenny Lawler, Senior Research Director at the Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute, acknowledges in an interview with Muwatin that there are few field studies on the environmental impact of desalination plants in Qatar. She attributes this partly to the difficulty of isolating desalination impacts from the numerous other stressors affecting the Gulf, such as climate change, oil and gas operations, commercial fishing, shipping, and construction. However, she notes that other studies have shown that desalination plant discharge can cause coral bleaching and death.

“Brine typically sinks in the water column and can lead to oxygen depletion in deeper layers, negatively impacting sediment-level marine life,” Lawler adds.

According to the paper “The Risks of Mega-Construction: Sustainability of Desalination and Brine Regulation in the Arabian Gulf,” Qatar accounts for 2% of global desalination capacity but is responsible for 5% of global brine production.

Dr. Radwan comments on fishermen’s complaints about the decline in fish stocks, describing it as a global phenomenon. He explains that fish populations and sizes have decreased worldwide due to several factors, including overfishing, coastal development, and pollution—whether from desalination plants or other industrial sources.

In a press statement, Qatar’s Minister of Environment and Climate Change, Faleh bin Nasser bin Ahmed bin Ali Al Thani, acknowledged that brine and wastewater from desalination plants pose a significant challenge for all Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states. He noted that these discharges contribute to rising water temperatures and increased salt concentrations in the Gulf, which, in turn, harm marine life and have broader negative environmental impacts. Over time, he added, elevated salinity levels also reduce the efficiency of desalination plants themselves, leading to suboptimal performance.

Carbon Emissions

Desalination plants using multi-stage flash (MSF) or distillation technology, with a combined capacity of 504 million gallons per day, could have a climatic impact that hinders Qatar’s ability to meet its climate action plans and nationally determined contributions (NDCs).

A 2019 study titled “Examining the life-cycle environmental impacts of desalination: A case study in the State of Qatar” highlights that MSF desalination plants emit between 7.32 kg and 12.6 kg of CO₂ per cubic meter of water produced, depending on the plant’s efficiency index.

The study highlights that multi-stage flash (MSF) distillation technology is highly energy-intensive, primarily due to the thermal energy required for the distillation process. This significant energy demand contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, particularly carbon dioxide (CO₂), which has both short- and long-term negative impacts on human health and the environment. For instance, MSF plants can emit millions of tons of CO₂ annually. The study notes that in 2014, MSF desalination plants in Qatar released 4.66 million tons of CO₂.

Dr. Jenny Lawler believes that Qatar's current thermal desalination plants contribute minimally to greenhouse gas emissions. This is because the heat used in thermal desalination is a byproduct of electricity generation, produced by burning gas in the country’s power turbines. “Until electricity is generated using renewable energy sources, it makes sense to view desalinated water as a secondary product derived from power generation,” she says.

However, she adds that thermal desalination plants discharge brine at higher temperatures and with more chemicals than seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) plants. For this reason, Qatar’s strategy is to shift away from thermal desalination and adopt reverse osmosis technology.

Karim Elgendy, an associate fellow at Chatham House (The Royal Institute of International Affairs), explains: “The challenge of desalination in the Gulf lies in its integration with power generation. Excess heat from fossil fuel-powered electricity generation is used to operate thermal desalination plants, particularly during summer.”

Speaking to Muwatin, Elgendy adds: “If fossil fuel power plants were replaced with renewable energy plants, desalination plants reliant on excess heat would also need to be replaced with technologies that don’t depend on this heat, significantly increasing the cost of energy transition.”

Legal Gap

According to the study “The perils of building big: Desalination sustainability and brine regulation in the Arab Gulf countries,” Qatar currently lacks specific standards for managing brine discharge. The broader Gulf region faces similar challenges, with fragmented environmental regulations and legal uncertainties.

The study points out that none of the GCC countries have established comprehensive environmental monitoring plans, which are essential components of desalination-related environmental regulations. It emphasizes the need for such plans to address key issues, including site selection, mitigation of environmental impacts during construction, monitoring procedures, and emergency measures.

Qatar’s Law No. 30 of 2002, which outlines environmental protection rules across more than 80 articles, does not specifically address the brine discharge issue. Article 42 mentions protecting the environment from pollution by implementing “preventive and precautionary approaches to safeguard the state’s coasts and ports from all types and sources of pollution risks” and “minimize potential impacts to the lowest possible levels.” Additionally, Article 55 references Decree No. 55 of 1992 regarding the Protocol for Marine Environment Protection from Land-Based Sources, which covers liquid waste discharged into the marine environment, although it does not explicitly mention brine.

Karim Elgendy categorizes the environmental impacts of desalination into two key areas: the emissions generated by desalination processes, which largely rely on fossil fuels, and the highly saline brine discharged into the Gulf. Both are examples of the tragedy of the commons, where no single entity bears the environmental costs of increased carbon concentration or rising salinity levels in the Gulf.

He also highlights that brine discharge is a significant problem because the Gulf’s waters are already highly saline. Additionally, it takes 5 to 7 years for Gulf waters to be replaced by fresh inflow from the Indian Ocean.

Attempts at Solutions

Qatar’s National Vision 2030 outlines five key challenges, including economic and social development and the protection and enhancement of the environment.

Lawler believes that advances in emerging thermal and membrane desalination technologies, the movement toward zero-liquid discharge, and the utilization of brine could transform Qatar's water sector’s environmental and economic landscape. Currently, only 40% of seawater is recovered as freshwater, with the remainder discharged as waste. Implementing such methods requires significant changes to the economic framework and creating pathways for adopting new technologies. Transitioning to renewable energy sources also demands systemic changes in how desalination plants are operated.

Research institutions in Qatar are actively working to mitigate the negative impacts of brine, Lawler notes. The Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute (QEERI) and Qatar University are developing thermoplastic materials that can be used in desalination plants to reduce the reliance on anti-scaling chemicals, thereby decreasing the chemical content of discharged brine. Qatar University is also working on advancing thermal desalination technologies, although these initiatives are still in the research phase and need implementation.

These efforts are supported by Qatar’s Minister of Environment and Climate Change public statements, emphasizing the ministry’s commitment to expanding scientific research and experiments to manage and treat wastewater and salts generated by desalination plants. In collaboration with relevant authorities, the ministry aims to find optimal solutions for desalination discharge, including extracting valuable salts for economic use by industrial entities.

While the scientific community works toward solutions to mitigate the impact of desalination plants, Qatari fisherman Faisal Mubarak continues to sail to more distant waters in search of the disappeared fish.

To the fourth part:

Green Desalination:
How to Solve the Brine Crisis?

It is now well-established that the brine produced by desalination poses a serious environmental challenge, threatening marine resources and ecosystems. Stories from fishermen, local communities, and researchers interviewed by Muwatin during its investigative series "The Cost of Fresh Water in the Arabian Gulf" highlight the scale of this crisis. However, despite its urgency, the issue remains without decisive strategies or practical solutions that can be implemented on a large scale.
Over a year, Muwatin conducted extensive interviews with nearly twenty researchers and scientists specializing in desalination technologies, many of whom have spent years working in the six Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states. The team also participated in key conferences, including the Euromed 2024 – Desalination for Clean Water and Energy conference, organized by the European Desalination Society (EDS) in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt, from May 6 to 9, 2024.

The conference was marked by a surge of academic activity, with numerous scientific papers presented in search of effective solutions to the brine challenge caused by desalination. Yet, as Muwatin observed and experts confirmed, these solutions remain confined mainly to academic studies and have seen limited application in small-scale projects.
Researchers interviewed by Muwatin unanimously agreed that governments are well aware of the "brine crisis" and are actively seeking solutions. Carlos Duarte, Professor of Marine Science at King Abdullah University Of Science And Technology (KAUST), noted that the current trend in desalination research focuses on developing technologies that altogether avoid brine discharge. This approach reflects the growing desire to minimize environmental harm while maximizing freshwater extraction efficiency.
Proposed Solutions
Based on a 2023 study published in the journal Water Resources and Industry titled "Governing desalination, managing the brine: A review and systematization of regulatory and socio-technical issues," seven proposed solutions have been identified to address the brine crisis. These solutions fall under three main categories:improving infrastructure, reusing brine and enhancing plant efficiency.
However, despite the range of options, these solutions face significant real-world challenges, including legal constraints, regulatory hurdles, high costs, and limited access to the technology required for implementation.

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1LIA8bEPPKBlwlEBnOSKTYP1sOQfVM4Rd/view?usp=sharing

Dr. Mohamed Al-Saidi, an associate professor at the College of Public Policy at Hamad Bin Khalifa University, tells Muwatin:
I’ve always wondered why the ‘brine crisis’ hasn’t been resolved. Perhaps it’s the cost, but the Gulf states are wealthy enough to bear that expense, especially since it’s not a technically complex issue. This became evident when newer desalination plants like ‘Umm Al Houl’ were built using less polluting technologies. We monitored these plants and found no significant environmental impact because they employed evaporation and dilution to manage brine, reducing its harmful effects. However, the real issue lies in the lack of investment in these technologies by desalination plants, especially in the Gulf, which houses the world’s largest number of desalination plants.
Dr. Al-Saidi adds: The biggest challenge is the existing infrastructure. Incorporating new technologies into massive plants is difficult without disrupting water supplies. Solutions require gradual intervention and infrastructure upgrades, focusing on improving brine dilution techniques.
He continues: “While some solutions have been implemented on a small scale in countries like Saudi Arabia and the UAE, economic and political challenges make short-term solutions difficult. There’s also a pressing need for better policies to ensure the sustainability of water supplies.”
Dr. Al-Saidi believes that resolving the brine crisis in the Gulf could take up to two decades, especially with challenges related to climate change and increasing water demand.

Regulatory Framework
Many researchers interviewed by Muwatin highlighted that while technological changes could resolve the brine crisis caused by desalination plants, the lack of strict regulatory frameworks hinders the full potential of these solutions. Regulatory tools for managing brine salinity vary between countries based on environmental and local conditions.
Dr. Al-Saidi explains: “We need clear and effective standards and mechanisms to monitor their implementation. However, looking at the available literature, it’s evident that compliance with such standards isn’t always strict. Even in countries like Saudi Arabia, where some standards exist, effective monitoring and clear plans for addressing non-compliance are essential.
Dr. Al-Saidi also reviewed studies that show how environmental regulations can drive technological innovation. He notes: “Once desalination plants are required to meet environmental limits and provide monitoring plans, it becomes a significant cost factor for them. This incentivizes innovation through new technologies or even by extracting and selling minerals from brine.”
He explains: "In the Gulf, we need to strengthen these environmental systems. However, as policymakers, we must recognize that the reality is different. Cities like Riyadh, Abu Dhabi, and Dubai rely on several desalination plants to meet their needs. Therefore, working closely with these plants is possible due to their limited number. However, we cannot impose strict environmental regulations if these plants are unable to implement them practically."
A 2023 research paper co-authored by Al-Saidi highlighted six common regulatory approaches worldwide for managing brine in a structured manner.
Standard Regulatory Tools for Controlling Brine Salinity in Desalination Plants

Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA)
EIAs are a fundamental requirement for approving the construction of new desalination plants. They help identify the potential environmental impacts of such projects. In Chile, various types of assessments are used depending on the project and location.

Environmental Monitoring Plans (EMP)
These plans complement EIAs by identifying potential adverse environmental impacts and establishing monitoring procedures. In Chile, EMPs are commonly used, and their application is increasing. Spain also implements long-term monitoring plans to ensure comprehensive environmental evaluations.

Setting Water Quality Standards
Some countries establish specific standards for the quality of brine discharged into the sea, such as limits on salinity levels, temperature, or allowable chemical concentrations. These standards are strictly enforced in the United States, Canada, and Australia.

Defining Mixing Zones
Certain regions allow the mixing of brine with seawater in designated areas to mitigate environmental impact. This practice is common in North America, where mixing zones are defined based on the properties of the brine and the local environment.

Emergency Regulations
Some countries, like Spain, implement emergency measures when water quality levels exceed permissible thresholds. These measures include identifying the cause, taking steps to reduce environmental impacts, such as lowering discharge rates or diluting brine before release.

Sector-Wide Regulations
Some nations adopt broad regulations to protect marine ecosystems. These include Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEAs), which evaluate the long-term environmental impacts of activities like desalination. Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) also defines acceptable environmental load limits in specific areas.
Source: Governing desalination, managing the brine: A review and systematization of regulatory and socio-technical issues

Dr. Al-Saidi stresses the importance of remembering that laws and regulations are meaningless without an effective enforcement mechanism. He emphasizes the need to avoid imposing impractical laws and instead focus on gradually supporting desalination plants while comprehensively developing water infrastructure. This approach should include not only production but also reuse and storage. Through such a gradual strategy, desalination plants can be encouraged to enhance their environmental sustainability without disrupting operations or imposing sudden burdens.

On a Small Scale
Four years ago, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), in collaboration with Red Sea Global, launched a global engineering challenge titled “Brains for Brine.” The competition sought innovative ideas for brine utilization, attracting over 125 submissions. The first-place winner proposed a circular solution to the brine issue using technology to create an eco-friendly building material. Another idea involved redirecting brine to the Dead Sea, connected to the rift system north of the Gulf of Aqaba. The Dead Sea, which is experiencing a severe volume reduction due to water withdrawals from its basin, is approximately 470 meters below sea level.
Carlos Duarte notes that adding brine, with a salinity level of 250 grams of salt per liter of water, could help replenish the Dead Sea’s volume. The elevation difference would allow gravity to transport brine effectively. While geopolitical challenges complicate such a solution, Duarte highlights its technical feasibility and potential benefits.

Duarte adds, “Other solutions focus on extracting valuable minerals from brine, including gold, silver, and lithium. KAUST is advancing lithium extraction technologies, which could hold significant economic value given the rising demand for electric vehicle batteries. However, such initiatives address only a fraction of the total brine production.”

Carlos Duarte explains: “The primary goal of desalination is to obtain freshwater as the main product. Seawater extracted in the Arabian Peninsula contains about 40 grams of salts per liter, while discharged brine concentrations range between 70 and 80 grams per liter. This means that for every liter of seawater pumped, 960 grams of desalinated water and the discharged brine contain 920 grams. Accordingly, only 40 grams of freshwater are extracted from every liter of seawater.”
He adds: “If all the salts in seawater could be utilized, it would allow the extraction of all the freshwater associated with them. This would reduce the volume of seawater that needs to be pumped and mitigate the risks of returning brine to the ocean.”
Duarte emphasizes that researching ways to use brine as a raw resource would bring significant benefits, especially for Gulf countries, which produce more than half of the world’s desalinated water. This poses a significant challenge in terms of energy consumption in the region.

https://muwatin.net/53293/GCC/en/